Kievan Rus' cont'd

During his reign, Vladimir the Great, saw the need for alliances with foreign civilizations. He attained an alliance with the Byzantine Empire by promptly converting the Kievan Rus' to Greek Orthodoxy and marrying Princess Anna of Byzantium. This of course was a purely political mover, and Vladimir's choice reverberates in the largest cultural aspects of Russian culture today. source

St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, today one of the most significant examples of Kiev architecture, and has been a symbol of Russian power through much political strife. Building began in 1037, under the orders of Yaroslav I the Wise, who had depictions of himself and the royal family illustrated on the inside. Many Greek Orthodox churches were erected on the direct orders of Kiev leaders; religion and politics were very closely entwined in Kievan Rus' society. source

Kievan Rus'

The Kievan Rus' civilization was a federation of East Slavic tribes ruled by the Rurik dynasty. The civilization spanned from the late 9th to the mid-13th century. source

Oleg of Novgorod. As prince of the Rurik dynasty in Novgorod, he took the region of Kiev and built the Kievan Rus' civilization. Oleg died between 912 and 922. source

The rulers of the Kievan Rus' were members of the Rurik dynasty. Icon of Saint Prince Vladimir, who exapnded his realm from the Baltic Sea to modern-day Ukraine, and converted the Kievs to Christianity. 16th century.  source

"Srebrenik" of Vladimir I the Great. source

The Golden Gate of Vladimir: erected in 1164. Served as a fortress and as a main entrance to the city of Vladimir. Saw times of war, the passage of future monarchs, and withstood the Mongol-Tartar attacks. source

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 The Russkaya Pravda is the legal code of the Kievan Rus' and Rus' principalities. Cultural links to the Byzantine Empire are not reflected in Rus' legislation; in fact, the Kievan Rus' code had a far more humane approach to law making than any other Eastern European civilization, with a total absence of capitol or corporal punishment.

Excepts from The Russkaya Pravda: Short Version. source

Article 1.

If a man kills a man, the brother is to avenge his brother; the son, his father; or the father, his son; or nephews, their uncles; and if there is no avenger [the murderer pays] forty grivnas fine; if [the killed man] is a Kievan Russian, or a member of the druzhina, or a merchant, or a sheriff, or an agent of the prince, or even a serf, or a Novgorodian Russian, the fine is forty grivnas.

 Article 7.
 For the moustache twelve grivnas; and for the beard twelve grivnas

 Article 30.
And if anyone damages or burns a prince's bee hive, three grivnas. 

 Article 42.
The following is the tax collecting custom: the collectors [during their journey] should receive seven buckets of malt, a ram or some other meat or two nogatas; and on Wednesday one rezana or cheese; the same on Friday; and as much bread and millet as they can eat; and two chickens per day; and shelter for four of their horses and feed for them, as much as they can eat; the collectors should [collect] sixty grivnas, ten rezanas, twelve veveritsas, and a grivna in advance; and during Lent collectors should receive fish and should get seven rezanas for fish; during a week they should receive fifteen kunas and food as much as they can eat; tax collectors should complete their task in one week; such is Iaroslav's decree. 

 The Primary Chronicle is a history of the Kiev people from 850 to 1110, compiled in 1130 by the Kievan Rus'. Its a widely used source when discussing the history, the culture, and politics of the East Slavs.

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The Aztec Empire

The Aztec empire in the Valley of Mexico originated from a number of culturally and linguistically tied indigenous tribes who moved to the valley from their native Aztlan in the early 12th century. The Aztecs are most famous for their distinctive practices of human sacrifice, and an intricate and cruel legal system.  Before their fall to the Spanish conquistadors in 1521, the Aztecs were a powerful people, whose influence resonates today in the archeological evidence of their social structure and their modern tribal descendants: the Nahua people.

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The empire was separated into a number of city states called altpetl. Each altpetl was governed by leader known as the tlatoani, who was accompanied by a judge called cihuacoatl. The tlatoani was charged with leading the military, carrying out judicial action, and handling all market-based issues within the city-state that his property. Both the tlatoani and the cihuacoatl were members of nobility, and appointed all member of administration below them. 

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The emperors were chosen by a four nobles who were related to the previous tlatoani. They were chosen among the brothers or sons of the former leader, and had to pass a number of scholarly, militaristic, and age requirements in order to become rulers. Montezuma I, picture above, was the fifth emperor of the Aztec capitol: Tenochtitlan. In 1428,during his reign Tenochtitlan formed an alliance with the rival altpetl, Texecoco and Tlocopan, in the interest of sharing and collecting tribute of conquered regions, and security measures.

Name-glyphs of the members of the Triple Alliance. source

Aztec judge sentencing an erring official.  source

The legal system of the Aztec was complex, rigid, and based heavily on tradition and the determination that these rules would maintain the people's respect to their government. Civil and criminal laws were issued in the form of pictographs that directly reflected the ruler's wishes.

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Numerous offenses were punishable by death, including homicide, perjury, rape, abortion, highway robbery, moving boundary markers, serious defamation of character, destruction of crops, selling stolen property, weight and measure fraud, witchcraft, incest, official graft, pederasty, inciting a public disturbance, sedition, treason, desertion or insubordination by soldiers, use of the emperor’s insignia, and serious judicial misconduct. Capital punishment could be carried out through hanging, drowning, stoning, strangulation, beheading, beating, disembowelment, burning, quartering, and opening the chest to remove the perpetrator's heart.

Aztec harvesting crops. source

Property owning was a complex, hierarchy-based system. The leader owned personal and royal property, along with the land acquired from conquered regions - all of which he could use or spread amongst the nobles as he saw fit. Nobles and warriors could only own land given to them by the emperor, or sold by other nobles or warriors. Commoners could only work on land granted to them by the owner, they could not own land individually. 

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The Aztec family framework was just as complex as the broader social structure. Marriages were arranged by the parents and could only scope within their social class: nobles only married other nobles. Children were expected to be obedient and there was a number of gruesome physical punishments (drawn above) that parents were permitted to enforce. While divorce was not legal, both spouses could petition for separation based on a preformed number of possible reasons, i.e. beating by the husband, infertility, laziness by the wife.

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 "A strong system of laws governed the economic operations of the Aztec Empire. The main sources of income for the empire were tribute and taxation. The conquered regions paid tribute to the emperor and the Aztec citizenry paid taxes (with the exception of priests, nobles, minors, orphans, invalids, and beggars). Merchants paid taxes on the goods that they sold, artisans paid taxes based on the value of their services, and barrios paid taxes through the crops that they produced. Failure to pay taxes was punishable through slavery or the confiscation of property."

 The Florentine Codex. A compilation revealing the gradual fade of Aztec culture into the Spanish and indigenous Nahuatl tribes. These illustrations are of Aztec deities that have been found to have Roman  parallels. source

 Residue of human blood has been found on this demonic figure that was placed outside of House of the Eagles, where the priests and nobility would enact human sacrifice. source

Ritual human sacrifice was a large part of the Aztec culture, that was both used as capital punishment and instilling terror - and thus obedience - in the people. The Aztecs believe they owed a blood-debt to the gods, and people were killed in the tens of thousands in one eighteen-month cycle. Not only was it of religious significance that was spread to the justice system, human sacrifice was also one part of the rite of passage for Aztec warriors. The military was a large part of Aztec's social structure, and to become a Jaguar or Eagle Warrior (pictured below) was one of the highest honors in Aztec society.

Sculpture of an Eagle Warrior, one of most respected members of Aztec society, who had power in the political/militaristic realm. source 

Ancient Rome

From its humble beginnings as a small, dominated city in Italy, Rome rose up to become a symbol of power, stretching across Europe, Asia Minor, and Northern Africa. Influenced by the cultures they communicated with, or overcame, they would "borrow" religion, or arts, philosophical ideas and all other facets of culture, adapting and expanding on them to create a unique culture, and an ever more distinctive Empire.

 

This image of Jupiter flying through the heavens astride an eagle was adapted for use in Roman official art to depict scenes of apotheosis, the act of making a deceased emperor a member of the divine, embodying their descent to heaven. Cameo fragment with Jupiter astride an eagle, 1st century B.C.E. - 1st century C.E. source

Glass mosaic bottle. Striped mosaic pattern formed from a single pre-formed cane comprising lengths arranged in repeated groups of different colors. source

Wall painting fragment from the north wall of Room H of the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale source

Sandaled foot, Augustan. Piece comes from full statue. Tongue of sandal has Nile characteristics, which suggests either Egyptian divinity of the emperor, triumphant over Egypt. 

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 1st century B.C.E. adaptation of a 3rd century B.C.E. Greek statue. The acclaimed Greek philosopher, Epicuros

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Christ before the Elders. Chalcedony, yellowish.

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These water spouts would have adorned a public bath in one of the major cities.

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Fresco wall painting in a cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale. This wall painting depicts a statue of Diana Lucina bearing torches, within a larger shrine. 

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The central figure, Dionysus, seated on a panther, is surrounded by four larger standing figures who represent the four Seasons (from left to right, Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall).

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 This large group of enamels likely adorned the yoke and harness of a ceremonial chariot.

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The Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. - 220 C.E.)

After being torn apart by civil war following the death of Qin Shihuandgi, China was reunited with what would become the Hand Dynasty, which was split into two periods: the Western (206 B.C.E.-9 C.E) and the Eastern ( 25-220 C.E).  Many efforts were made during this time to unify and retain Chinese culture and society, after the oppressive, warring conditions of the preceding Qin dynasty. Thus, this dynasty was a time of lasting cultural discovery. The Confucian standards that structured the social culture remained ingrained in Chinese culture into the modern era. The goal to make ties with other empires led to the development of the Silk Road, an extensive trade route that stretched as far as Rome. The invention of lead-based glazes aided in more complex and diverse methods of pottery-making. Han funeral arrangements were an extensive, heavily cultural affair. Stone paintings that covered these paintings were as unique and distinctive as the bronze work of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Overall, the political and cultural development and stability of this period, led it to being the one of the four great dynasties of Ancient China.

 

This female figure is a classic example of Han sculpture. Female Dancer, Western Han dynasty 2nd century B.C.E. source

 This mortuary vessel, known as a hu, is decorated with the animated drama of a blue beast with bared fangs lunging at a mounted archer. On the other side, a long, striding tiger.This piece encapsulated the confident artistry of the Han period, and their work in painting at it's best.

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Equestrian soldier. Earthenware with pigment. 2nd century B.C.E. source

Many  painted, robed figures such as this piece were made, many of which were excavated from the Han Yangling Mausoleum, which illustrated the intricate care that was taken into burial. Each was unique in its facial expression, hairstyle, clothing, and color scheme. They are intricate, and idealistic depictions of life. source

Sculptures such as these were heavily inspired by the style of the proceeding Qin dynasty. Despite only being two thirds of real size, each human figure is perfectly proportioned, showing the skill and level of attention paid to the work by their talented Han sculptors. source

Intricate animal sculptures such as these depicted in this image and the one below served as meet storage in the Han Yangling mausoleum, reflecting the lavish lifestyle of Han royals, and societies in Chinese husbandry. source

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 The stringed instrument in this artifact was apparently a per-cursor to the zither, an important East Asian instrument. Se player,1st century B.C.E.–1st century C.E.
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Method and styles of pottery-making varied all across Han China. Different parts of China were familiar with different kinds of glazes. Artisan were specific about the look of the final product, tinting with color, or going for the appearance of bronze. Some styles of pottery were associated more with depiction of daily life, and others were specifically for funerals.
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Hellenistic Period (323 B.C.E. - 30 B.C.E.)

The Hellenistic Era began in 323 B.C.E. with the death of Alexander the Great. His successors divided his territories and were the rulers of the Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia, the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt, and the Seleucid Empire, which consisted of Babylonia and at its peak including India, Pakistan, Mesopotamia, Persia, and much of the rest of Alexander's territories. Politically, some Greek city-states declared independence, countries broke away from the Seleucid Empire, and were ruled by individual local dynasties. The Greek language and culture spread all across Europe and Asia, influencing every facet of culture and the arts, and inspiring a massive progression in the arts never before seen. Rules and morals established during the Classical Period were all but abandoned, as artists sought to more realistically describe the human figure. Art was less preoccupied with the ideal image of the gods as artists became inspired by the more realistic aspects of human character and the psyche. Naturalism was introduced into art, the background in which an artwork was placed became just as relevant as the piece itself.. Theatrics were introduced into visual artwork, figures of a hideous Pan attempting to seduce Aphrodite, the depictions combined with the position of the body and facial expressions added a dramatic air to art, telling a story. Female nudes rose to popularity amongst sculptures, new definitions of beauty and perfection were created. In India, Greek influence is found in their artwork, where both Greek and Buddhist influences coexist in the same piece. The Hellenistic Period was a diverse era, where so many cultures collided and influenced each other, inspiring artwork, and philosophy, and the gathering of knowledge. Even after its end with the Romans rise to power in 30 B.C.E., the Hellenistic Period's artistic and cultural output remained admirable and inspirational to the Roman culture, and remains outstanding to this day.

Temple of Edfu. Built during Ptolemaic Dynasty. Egypt 237 to 257 b.c.e. source

 Ganymede Jewelry, Hellenistic, 330–300 b.c.e. Greek Gold, rock crystal, emerald source

Victory of Samothrace. 220-185 b.c.e. source

 Statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, Hellenistic, 3rd–2nd century b.c.e. Greek. Bronze source 

Funerary stele with a woman in childbirth, Early Hellenistic, late 4th–early 3rd century b.c.
Greek; from the Soldiers' Tomb, Ibrahimieh necropolis, Alexandria, excavated 1884
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Gold-glass alabastron, 1st century b.c.e. Hellenistic. Glass. source 

  Statue of Eros sleeping, Hellenistic, 3rd century b.c.e.–2nd century b.c.e. Greek. Bronze. source

Papyrus fragment with lines from Homer's Odyssey, Early Hellenistic, 285–250 b.c.e. Greek, Ptolemaic. source

 

 Head of "The Hellenistic Prince". 2nd Century bronze statue. source 

 Mosaic depicting Dionysus in House of Masks on Delos, Greece. source