Ancient Rome

From its humble beginnings as a small, dominated city in Italy, Rome rose up to become a symbol of power, stretching across Europe, Asia Minor, and Northern Africa. Influenced by the cultures they communicated with, or overcame, they would "borrow" religion, or arts, philosophical ideas and all other facets of culture, adapting and expanding on them to create a unique culture, and an ever more distinctive Empire.

 

This image of Jupiter flying through the heavens astride an eagle was adapted for use in Roman official art to depict scenes of apotheosis, the act of making a deceased emperor a member of the divine, embodying their descent to heaven. Cameo fragment with Jupiter astride an eagle, 1st century B.C.E. - 1st century C.E. source

Glass mosaic bottle. Striped mosaic pattern formed from a single pre-formed cane comprising lengths arranged in repeated groups of different colors. source

Wall painting fragment from the north wall of Room H of the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale source

Sandaled foot, Augustan. Piece comes from full statue. Tongue of sandal has Nile characteristics, which suggests either Egyptian divinity of the emperor, triumphant over Egypt. 

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 1st century B.C.E. adaptation of a 3rd century B.C.E. Greek statue. The acclaimed Greek philosopher, Epicuros

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Christ before the Elders. Chalcedony, yellowish.

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These water spouts would have adorned a public bath in one of the major cities.

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Fresco wall painting in a cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale. This wall painting depicts a statue of Diana Lucina bearing torches, within a larger shrine. 

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The central figure, Dionysus, seated on a panther, is surrounded by four larger standing figures who represent the four Seasons (from left to right, Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall).

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 This large group of enamels likely adorned the yoke and harness of a ceremonial chariot.

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The Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. - 220 C.E.)

After being torn apart by civil war following the death of Qin Shihuandgi, China was reunited with what would become the Hand Dynasty, which was split into two periods: the Western (206 B.C.E.-9 C.E) and the Eastern ( 25-220 C.E).  Many efforts were made during this time to unify and retain Chinese culture and society, after the oppressive, warring conditions of the preceding Qin dynasty. Thus, this dynasty was a time of lasting cultural discovery. The Confucian standards that structured the social culture remained ingrained in Chinese culture into the modern era. The goal to make ties with other empires led to the development of the Silk Road, an extensive trade route that stretched as far as Rome. The invention of lead-based glazes aided in more complex and diverse methods of pottery-making. Han funeral arrangements were an extensive, heavily cultural affair. Stone paintings that covered these paintings were as unique and distinctive as the bronze work of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Overall, the political and cultural development and stability of this period, led it to being the one of the four great dynasties of Ancient China.

 

This female figure is a classic example of Han sculpture. Female Dancer, Western Han dynasty 2nd century B.C.E. source

 This mortuary vessel, known as a hu, is decorated with the animated drama of a blue beast with bared fangs lunging at a mounted archer. On the other side, a long, striding tiger.This piece encapsulated the confident artistry of the Han period, and their work in painting at it's best.

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Equestrian soldier. Earthenware with pigment. 2nd century B.C.E. source

Many  painted, robed figures such as this piece were made, many of which were excavated from the Han Yangling Mausoleum, which illustrated the intricate care that was taken into burial. Each was unique in its facial expression, hairstyle, clothing, and color scheme. They are intricate, and idealistic depictions of life. source

Sculptures such as these were heavily inspired by the style of the proceeding Qin dynasty. Despite only being two thirds of real size, each human figure is perfectly proportioned, showing the skill and level of attention paid to the work by their talented Han sculptors. source

Intricate animal sculptures such as these depicted in this image and the one below served as meet storage in the Han Yangling mausoleum, reflecting the lavish lifestyle of Han royals, and societies in Chinese husbandry. source

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 The stringed instrument in this artifact was apparently a per-cursor to the zither, an important East Asian instrument. Se player,1st century B.C.E.–1st century C.E.
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Method and styles of pottery-making varied all across Han China. Different parts of China were familiar with different kinds of glazes. Artisan were specific about the look of the final product, tinting with color, or going for the appearance of bronze. Some styles of pottery were associated more with depiction of daily life, and others were specifically for funerals.
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Hellenistic Period (323 B.C.E. - 30 B.C.E.)

The Hellenistic Era began in 323 B.C.E. with the death of Alexander the Great. His successors divided his territories and were the rulers of the Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia, the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt, and the Seleucid Empire, which consisted of Babylonia and at its peak including India, Pakistan, Mesopotamia, Persia, and much of the rest of Alexander's territories. Politically, some Greek city-states declared independence, countries broke away from the Seleucid Empire, and were ruled by individual local dynasties. The Greek language and culture spread all across Europe and Asia, influencing every facet of culture and the arts, and inspiring a massive progression in the arts never before seen. Rules and morals established during the Classical Period were all but abandoned, as artists sought to more realistically describe the human figure. Art was less preoccupied with the ideal image of the gods as artists became inspired by the more realistic aspects of human character and the psyche. Naturalism was introduced into art, the background in which an artwork was placed became just as relevant as the piece itself.. Theatrics were introduced into visual artwork, figures of a hideous Pan attempting to seduce Aphrodite, the depictions combined with the position of the body and facial expressions added a dramatic air to art, telling a story. Female nudes rose to popularity amongst sculptures, new definitions of beauty and perfection were created. In India, Greek influence is found in their artwork, where both Greek and Buddhist influences coexist in the same piece. The Hellenistic Period was a diverse era, where so many cultures collided and influenced each other, inspiring artwork, and philosophy, and the gathering of knowledge. Even after its end with the Romans rise to power in 30 B.C.E., the Hellenistic Period's artistic and cultural output remained admirable and inspirational to the Roman culture, and remains outstanding to this day.

Temple of Edfu. Built during Ptolemaic Dynasty. Egypt 237 to 257 b.c.e. source

 Ganymede Jewelry, Hellenistic, 330–300 b.c.e. Greek Gold, rock crystal, emerald source

Victory of Samothrace. 220-185 b.c.e. source

 Statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, Hellenistic, 3rd–2nd century b.c.e. Greek. Bronze source 

Funerary stele with a woman in childbirth, Early Hellenistic, late 4th–early 3rd century b.c.
Greek; from the Soldiers' Tomb, Ibrahimieh necropolis, Alexandria, excavated 1884
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Gold-glass alabastron, 1st century b.c.e. Hellenistic. Glass. source 

  Statue of Eros sleeping, Hellenistic, 3rd century b.c.e.–2nd century b.c.e. Greek. Bronze. source

Papyrus fragment with lines from Homer's Odyssey, Early Hellenistic, 285–250 b.c.e. Greek, Ptolemaic. source

 

 Head of "The Hellenistic Prince". 2nd Century bronze statue. source 

 Mosaic depicting Dionysus in House of Masks on Delos, Greece. source

Sumerian Civilization (ca. 3000 - 2000 B.C.E.)

Sumerian society in Ancient Mesopotamia was the first great ancient civilization the world has seen. Bordering the Euphrates and Tigris River, just north of the Persian Gulf, Ancient Sumer was formed in southern Mesopotamia; what is now modern day Iraq. The resources associated with settlement building, such as timber and stone, were not abundant in the Near East. The Sumerians instead used mud to build their settlements, their ziggurats - which serve the Near East as the pyramids do in Egypt -, and eventually the tablets upon which they wrote the first written language: cuneiform. While the constant sunshine and silt carried from the rivers served as fertilizer were both encouraging for crops, the vast dry climate prevented vegetation from naturally flourishing. Thus Sumer was split into city-states to create an irrigation system of canals and dams, making this desert abundant, even surplus, with agriculture. Twenty centuries before Caesar, and sixteen before Socrates - Sumer was so agriculturally abundant that they could turn to the arts, architecture, and their social structure. The great Ziggurat of Ur was a symbol of the city-state's patron goddess, Nanna, and a meeting place where the people would bring their agricultural surplus and receive food allotments. The first monarchies were established, cuneiform, the plow, the sailboat, and the lunar calender were all . By its end, Sumer was an ancient culture, ridden with a history of civil wars between city-states, conflict with other Mesopotamian cultures, culminating in the gradual absorption of Sumerian culture into the growing Akkadian civilization, later known as the Babylonians. Every facet of Akkadian society was heavily influenced by the Sumerian. Sumerian innovation served as the foundation and inspiration of every great civilization that followed.

 

Staircase of Great Ziggurat. source

North-east side of Great Ziggurat of Ur from Sir Leonard Woolley's photo album. source

Great Ziggurat of Ur in 2008. Largely reconstructed. source

Sumerian Mother-of-Pearl Inlay: a Bald-Headed Priest leading a Bull

Mesopotamia; circa 2500 BCE source

Sumerian Creme Calcite Female Face with Lapis Lazuli Inlaid Eyebrows and Eye Rims

Mari area, Syria; 2600-2350 BCE. source

In the 1920's, Sir Leonard Woolley excavated the site where the city-state Ur lies. There he began the renovation of the great ziggurat, and discovered over 1800 graves. Most of them were pits in a burial ground, but 17 of them were actual tombs branching off into several rooms that held a number of  valuable objects. Woolley called these tombs the Royal Tombs of Ur. In a corner of the Royal Tombs, a number of stone and shell fragments were found lying in a pattern on the floor. Once analyzed, archeologists believed  the fragments had been part of a disintegrated box. Woolley believed the positioning of the fragments - above and to the right of a man who was apparently holding a pole - indicated  that is was a standard,  thus naming it the Standard of Ur.

Standard of Ur: Peace Side. source 

Gold spouted bowl found in Royal Tombs of Ur source

One of two lyres found in Royal Tombs of Ur. source

 Cuneiform tablet still in its clay case: legal case from Niqmepuh, King of Iamhad (Aleppo), 1720 B.C.E source

 Sumerian city of Girsu. this victory stele, known as the "Stele of the Vultures," is the oldest known historiographic document. A long Sumerian inscription narrates the recurrent conflict between the neighboring city-states of Lagash and Umma, and records the victory won by Eannatum, king of Lagash, who ruled around 2450 BC. source

 "Ur-Namma, the king of Ur, he who built the temple of Nanna". Refering to ziggurat of Ur. source

Ur-Namma. King of Ur. King of Sumer and Akkad. source

Shang Dynasty - (ca. 1600 - 1050 B.C.E.)

IN 1766 B.C.E., Tang the Perfect, overthrew the Xia Dynasty and established the Shang Dynasty along the middle region of the Yellow River, in what is now Hennan and Western Shandong.

Due to the proximity to the Yellow River and Yangtze, the Shang developed an irrigation system and forms of flood control, many leaps where made in the way of agriculture and animal-husbandry. The Shang is also credited with the first written Chinese characters, thus the beginning of recorded history in China. This time period began what is known as the Bronze Age of China, bringing bronze-casting to new heights. Known for its unique craftsmanship in bronze, (which was used for everything from wine goblets to battle axes) jade, ceramics, and weaving, the Shang developed its own unique, lasting stamp on Chinese culture, and at the same time retained a surprisingly peaceful patriarchal society throughout its reign.

 An excellent example of the sheer amount of craft production is seen when looking at the tomb of Lady Fu Hao: the wife of King Wu Ding, who served as military general and a high priestess. While most royal tombs were looted for their treasure, hers remained untouched until it's discovery within the Yin Ruins in 1976. 

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The tomb held over 700 individual pieces of jade, over 400 bronze artifacts; over 6,000 pieces of cowry shell, more than 500 bone objects, most of which were hairpins, 67 stones pieces and 5 ivory artifacts.

A bronze Ding vessel found in Fu Hao's tomb. Inscribed with the first Chinese characters, her title: "Si Mu Xin" source

Another bronze find in the tomb, this was a one of a pair of zun - a wine drinking vessel. The animal is meant represent an owl or parrot. source

The Shang dynasty is credited with the first written recorded history in China. Oracles would use the cracks in tortoise shells or bones to read the future, and right down the history of their kings.

Thousands of these oracles bones have been recovered, but sadly any writings done on bamboo strips or silk did not survive the passage of time.  source

Buffalo. Late Shang Dynasty. Jade. source

                       

 Notched axe, Late Shang period, c. 1200–1000 B.C.Jade source

 Blade, Shang period, c.1600–1045 B.C. Jade source

 Bronze two-sided mask, Late Shang Period (c. 1200-1050 B.C.) source

The design above - the "taotie" - depicts a glutton monster in Shang culture. In the legend, the monster was so gluttonous it would immediately eat anything in sight, eventually eating its own body. The monster dies due to its boundless greed. This image was very popular in the society, used on axes and masks. source

 Pendant with monster mask, Shang period, 13th-11th century B.C. Jade

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Bronze sculpture with gold leafing. source